{"id":115414,"date":"2025-03-18T11:35:32","date_gmt":"2025-03-18T10:35:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/?p=115414"},"modified":"2025-03-20T12:08:16","modified_gmt":"2025-03-20T11:08:16","slug":"foundations-of-kosovos-parallel-state","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/foundations-of-kosovos-parallel-state\/","title":{"rendered":"Foundations of Kosovo\u2019s parallel state"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"115414\" class=\"elementor elementor-115414 elementor-114609\" data-elementor-post-type=\"post\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-e91616a elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"e91616a\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-no\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-9120624\" data-id=\"9120624\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-25c2c8b elementor-fixed elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"25c2c8b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_position&quot;:&quot;fixed&quot;}\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1080\" height=\"383\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/05\/K2.0-BLACK-LOGO.png\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-73970\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-94b97a4 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-fixed elementor-widget-mobile__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-wpml-language-switcher\" data-id=\"94b97a4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_position&quot;:&quot;fixed&quot;}\" data-widget_type=\"wpml-language-switcher.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"wpml-elementor-ls\">\n<div\n\t class=\"wpml-ls-statics-shortcode_actions wpml-ls wpml-ls-legacy-dropdown js-wpml-ls-legacy-dropdown\" id=\"lang_sel\">\n\t<ul>\n\n\t\t<li tabindex=\"0\" class=\"wpml-ls-slot-shortcode_actions wpml-ls-item wpml-ls-item-en wpml-ls-current-language wpml-ls-item-legacy-dropdown\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"#\" class=\"js-wpml-ls-item-toggle wpml-ls-item-toggle lang_sel_sel icl-en\" target=\"_blank\">\n                <span class=\"wpml-ls-native icl_lang_sel_native\">ENG<\/span><\/a>\n\n\t\t\t<ul class=\"wpml-ls-sub-menu\">\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"icl-sq wpml-ls-slot-shortcode_actions wpml-ls-item wpml-ls-item-sq wpml-ls-first-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\" class=\"wpml-ls-link\" target=\"_blank\">\n                            <span class=\"wpml-ls-native icl_lang_sel_native\" lang=\"sq\">SHQ<\/span><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t<li class=\"icl-sr wpml-ls-slot-shortcode_actions wpml-ls-item wpml-ls-item-sr wpml-ls-last-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/sr\/\" class=\"wpml-ls-link\" target=\"_blank\">\n                            <span class=\"wpml-ls-native icl_lang_sel_native\" lang=\"sr\">B\/C\/S<\/span><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d411128 elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d411128\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-no\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2ec6edf\" data-id=\"2ec6edf\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-52d56d5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"52d56d5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114419\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/Besnik-Pula-90s-Feature-Image-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6265f4d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"6265f4d\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-eafdd7a\" data-id=\"eafdd7a\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fb55bee elementor-align-left elementor-mobile-align-left elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"fb55bee\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-xs\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/longform\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">LONGFORM<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-e1be468 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"e1be468\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-c6989ef\" data-id=\"c6989ef\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-afeb831 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"afeb831\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Foundations of Kosovo\u2019s parallel state\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-323b00b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"323b00b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Personal and economic context for Yugoslavia\u2019s collapse<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cb7f1ca elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"cb7f1ca\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-015319f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"015319f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/author\/besnikp\/\" style=\"border-bottom: 1.3px solid yellow;\" target=\"_blank\">By Besnik Pula<\/a>  | March 18, 2025<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-58cbf92 elementor-shape-square e-grid-align-left elementor-grid-0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-social-icons\" data-id=\"58cbf92\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"social-icons.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-social-icons-wrapper elementor-grid\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-facebook elementor-repeater-item-5e387e1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/Kosovo2.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Facebook<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-facebook\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-twitter elementor-repeater-item-7ae3a81\" href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/kosovo2point0\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Twitter<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-twitter\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-instagram elementor-repeater-item-8daffd8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/kosovo2point0\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Instagram<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-instagram\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-305390d elementor-widget-divider--view-line_text elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"305390d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-40e9285 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"40e9285\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-1657d16\" data-id=\"1657d16\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1422bb1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1422bb1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">I vividly remember the summer day in 1991 when my father and I boarded a 3 a.m. bus from Prishtina to Belgrade, where we would catch our morning flight to JFK airport in New York City. A mix of excitement and anxiousness kept me from sleeping that night. The beige-colored bus, operated by the once renowned Tourist Kosova company, departed from the front of the Grand Hotel Prishtina, likely for the convenience of the rare foreign journalist or visitor who might have been staying there during those tumultuous years. Just weeks earlier, I had severely injured my ankle in a fall, so I limped from our apartment to the bus with my luggage. I bid my mother and my great aunt, who had graciously come out that morning to see us away, farewell, climbed onto the bus with my father, and we set off.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The journey to Belgrade was exceedingly long and sleep eluded me once again. Upon disembarking, the pain from my limp intensified as I had to drag both my luggage and my father\u2019s, while he hurriedly sought a taxi to ensure that we didn&#8217;t miss our flight. Belgrade felt alien to me, a place I had last visited in my childhood, when Josip Broz Tito\u2019s Yugoslavia still existed.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By the summer of 1991, Belgrade had become a hub of bitter political turmoil, marked by Yugoslavia\u2019s dissolution and the Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s dominance, making it an unwelcoming place for a young man from Kosovo. I was relieved when my father finally secured a taxi, allowing us to hasten to the airport.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Our JAT Yugoslav Airlines flight was delayed due to the lack of jet fuel at Belgrade airport, a result of the economic collapse Yugoslavia was undergoing at the time. The more-than-a-decade old DC-10 that operated the Belgrade-JFK route, needed to refuel elsewhere. After a lengthy delay, the pilot announced that we would be making an unscheduled stop in Amsterdam to refuel before continuing to JFK.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-cd15ecc elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"cd15ecc\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0469e2e\" data-id=\"0469e2e\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3e37231 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"3e37231\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fd13647 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"fd13647\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">As I looked out below to the greenery and the mountains, I attempted to identify Slovenia, somewhat foolishly wondering if any signs of the conflict between the Slovenian forces and the Yugoslav army would be visible from the air.<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8fe3402 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"8fe3402\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-faf2044 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"faf2044\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-71703dd\" data-id=\"71703dd\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f8202ee elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"f8202ee\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As the plane took off and made its climb, I gazed down, sensing a combination of thrill and fear as we made our ascent. It was my first time back on a flight since childhood, and this experience felt much different. As I looked out below to the greenery and the mountains, I attempted to identify Slovenia, somewhat foolishly wondering if any signs of the conflict between the Slovenian forces and the Yugoslav army would be visible from the air. Days prior, Slovenia had declared its full independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the federation\u2019s dissolution was now underway.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d62f3b5 elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d62f3b5\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-no\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-1d2d449\" data-id=\"1d2d449\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ea8d7bc elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"ea8d7bc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"2560\" height=\"1178\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-scaled.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114710\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-scaled.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-300x138.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-1024x471.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-768x353.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-1536x707.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-2048x942.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/screencapture-kosovotwopointzero-parimet-e-komentimit-ne-k2-0-2025-03-13-09_12_17-326x150.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">After Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on June 25, 1991, the Yugoslav army intervened before withdrawing 10 days later. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-93e2be7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"93e2be7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-28f39c6\" data-id=\"28f39c6\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3e47eb0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3e47eb0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On the sweltering summer evening of July 1, 1991, we arrived at JFK airport. Upon stepping outside, I was struck by the humid air and the row of yellow taxis outside the airport. That summer was spent primarily in our modest Manhattan apartment, where my father roomed with his cousin. At the time, my father was unemployed, having been let go for political reasons from his position as a commercial director at Eximkos, Kosovo\u2019s export-import company, the year before. I was in the U.S. to pursue my education, while my father was figuring out how to support our family. My mother and siblings joined us soon after in the U.S..<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Even before I left Prishtina, I understood that my family\u2019s migration to the U.S. was not an isolated event. While smaller numbers of Kosovar migrants had left since 1945 and through the early 1980s due to political persecution, economic difficulties, or job opportunities across western Europe and elsewhere around the world, the 1990s saw a significant increase in migration.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-e4afd22 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"e4afd22\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0724785\" data-id=\"0724785\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7552072 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"7552072\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114392\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/001-Besnik-Pula-90s-Firrst-Image-moving-to-NY-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">A wave of Kosovo Albanians left Kosovo in the 1990s, heading to Switzerland, Germany, U.K., U.S., Australia and other countries. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-7a7efb1 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"7a7efb1\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ca2ba6a\" data-id=\"ca2ba6a\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-26f90b2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"26f90b2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Meeting fellow migrants from Kosovo and hearing about others who had moved to the U.K., Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Australia and many other places made it clear that we were part of an entire generation sharing similar migration experiences. We didn\u2019t migrate seeking adventure or to pursue grand ambitions; instead, for most of us during that period, living abroad was seen as a temporary solution until the situation back home improved. Our personal stories were part of a broader historical shift in migration patterns, a reality that we may not have fully understood or appreciated at the time, given our preoccupation with the daily challenges of surviving as immigrants.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For those who left their homes in the 1990s with the expectation of returning once conditions improved, there was a strong identification with the struggles of the homeland. This situation also often brought a sense of guilt for leaving behind those who were facing significant threats, a guilt that could only be recompensed by supporting the political struggle of those left behind for liberation from political repression and Kosovo\u2019s independence.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 1990s played a crucial role in shaping the Kosovo-Albanian diaspora, not just demographically, but the mode of displacement also formed a certain kind of diasporic identity that remained deeply connected to the homeland.<\/span><\/p><p>The events that precipitated the mass departure of tens, and ultimately hundreds of thousands from Kosovo in the 1990s, are related to a series of political and economic shifts that had been in the making decades earlier.\u00a0<\/p><p><b style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">Yugoslavia on the brink\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p>The 1980s in Yugoslavia were marked by the political backdrop of repression, which particularly targeted Kosovo in response to the mass protests of 1981 as well as worsening economic conditions that hit a poor region like Kosovo most severely. This was in contrast to the relatively peaceful, relatively prosperous 1970s \u2014 relative being a key word \u2014 when Kosovo enjoyed a high level of political autonomy, massive federally-funded investments transformed the economy and cultural and educational life bloomed as demographic trends shifted resolutely in favor of the ethnic Albanian majority.\u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-f939da7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"f939da7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-90a2013\" data-id=\"90a2013\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b42671b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b42671b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 1980s brought a different mood throughout the federation. In 1980, the death of Tito \u2014 who <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">served in various positions of leadership from 1943<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, including president from 1953 \u2014 no doubt marked the end of a political era. Though aged and taking a back stage politically, Tito stood as a symbol and guarantor of Yugoslav unity during the country\u2019s late period. His death created a void in the realm of both political and symbolic authority. But taking a deeper look economically, the 1970s over which Tito presided were not such a great period for the federation either.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">After Yugoslavia\u2019s break with the Soviet Union in 1948, it launched an institutional experiment in \u201cworker self-management\u201d socialism, beginning with reforms in the 1950s that devolved economic power to enterprises. Yugoslav party leaders envisioned this system as an alternative to both Soviet central planning and market capitalism, allowing workers to self-manage enterprises and make investment decisions, elect leaderships and develop business plans, while enabling market exchange in the sale of goods and allowing limited forms of private property. By the 1960s, however, this system had come under strain.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-dcac4da\" data-id=\"dcac4da\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ffeb1c6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ffeb1c6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">1981 protests<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ab3cd59 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ab3cd59\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The 1981 protests in Kosovo were a series of student-led demonstrations that escalated into widespread unrest. Initially sparked by demands for better living and study conditions at the University of Prishtina, the protests quickly grew into calls for greater political autonomy and recognition of Kosovo as a republic. The demonstrations were met with a heavy-handed response from Yugoslav authorities, including police and military interventions, resulting in arrests, injuries and deaths.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-c335085 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"c335085\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3dc1afb\" data-id=\"3dc1afb\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-304b8b9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"304b8b9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114401\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/004-Besnik-Pula-90s-Titos-Death-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">Josip Broz Tito\u2019s death in 1980 ended a political era and created a void of both political and symbolic authority. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-3eb71a8 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"3eb71a8\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-604b908\" data-id=\"604b908\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4b6ea42 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4b6ea42\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Through the 1960s, the northern republics of Slovenia and Croatia pushed for greater economic openness toward the West and the expansion of internal markets. In theory, the goal was to construct a market socialist system that combined worker control with market competition and exchange. In practice, the evolving political framework hindered the development of a unified Yugoslav economy and introduced elements of implicit republican mercantilism. This structure encouraged each political unit in the federation to prioritize internal investments and production, while also competing with others to secure larger portions of both the national and export markets. Hence, socialism became, at best, reserved internally for the industries of each republic, while markets left for competition with other republican producers as well as in exports.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The fragmented national market this created became fully evident by the 1970s. The massive inflation crisis that marked the period was a precursor to the austerity and hardships of the 1980s. Today, American and European central bankers are concerned when inflation surpasses 2%. By comparison, while extremely elevated throughout the 1970s, consumer inflation in Yugoslavia peaked in 1981 at a staggering 46%.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-fcd83cb elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"fcd83cb\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2460a46\" data-id=\"2460a46\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-552a2b1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"552a2b1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Consumer price inflation in Yugoslavia (annual increase in %)<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-40ab12b elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"40ab12b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"2400\" height=\"1299\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114722\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage.jpg 2400w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-300x162.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-1024x554.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-768x416.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-1536x831.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-2048x1108.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/graph-percentage-326x176.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 2400px) 100vw, 2400px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">Source: Babi\u0107, M. &amp; Primorac, E. (1986). Some causes of the growth of the Yugoslav external debt. Soviet Studies, 38(1), 69-88.<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1aff9f5 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"1aff9f5\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-269fb70\" data-id=\"269fb70\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1126805 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1126805\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The high level of popular dissatisfaction within Yugoslavia, partly expressed \u2014 as in Kosovo that year \u2014 through a nationalist idiom, should not overshadow the revolt\u2019s economic roots. In Kosovo, the massive protests of 1981 were not initially prompted by any nationalist slogan, but by a complaint by students at the university cafeteria over the poor quality of the food. Before the famous \u201c<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kosova republik\u00eb!<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d \u2014 \u201cKosovo republic!\u201d \u2014 chant, students began by tossing their food trays and chanting \u201c<\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">duam kushte!<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201d loosely translated as \u201cwe demand better living conditions!\u201d After all, the demand for a Kosovo republic was also framed as a demand for greater economic equity in Yugoslavia.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-a6901ea elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"a6901ea\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-c13ec50\" data-id=\"c13ec50\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b9307fb elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"b9307fb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114398\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/003-Besnik-Pula-90s-Protestat-e-81-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">The 1981 protests in Kosovo initially began in response to poor food in the university cafeteria, but ultimately called for Kosovo to have republic status, a demand that was framed as a call for greater economic equity in Yugoslavia. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-7267243 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"7267243\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-883422f\" data-id=\"883422f\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-db61a84 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"db61a84\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The period saw a significant growth of regional and class inequalities, which came to visibly characterize Yugoslav social life in the 1980s. The inflation crisis itself was experienced differently. In Slovenia, growing exports to Western markets meant that the region earned large amounts of hard currency. Enterprises there could respond to price inflation by raising wages, which in turn would generate a wage-price spiral affecting all the other regions. These distinct regional responses only contributed to the growth of regional disparities. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lse.ac.uk\/Economic-History\/Assets\/Documents\/WorkingPapers\/Economic-History\/2017\/WP267.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By the 1980s, Kosovo\u2019s per capita GDP fell to 27% of the Yugoslav average<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, down from 47% in the immediate postwar period. In 1980, Kosovo\u2019s GDP per capita of $795 was meager in comparison to Slovenia\u2019s $3,190.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-98bd8c8 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"98bd8c8\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-beb47e4\" data-id=\"beb47e4\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c90361d elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"c90361d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114407\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/006-Besnik-Pula-90s-Inflation-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">In 1981, consumer inflation in Yugoslavia reached 46%, in part because growing exports from Slovenia to Western markets brought in large amounts of hard currency. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6b671a1 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"6b671a1\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-457347c\" data-id=\"457347c\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a472bf1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a472bf1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The political paralysis and outright ineptitude of the federal government was on full display during the period. Throughout the 1970s, while inflation soared, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/09668138608411623?casa_token=jzZpK6FL6_0AAAAA:Kl-AZodmrqemPfEi05-ZqbpeEbL4FeqdAi8TQZkfI-gnA8eK2u3GCycHWPOAOo5JSDzBZsM40MBP\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Yugoslav Central Bank stubbornly maintained a fixed nominal interest rate of 6%<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> As the country shared a single currency, this amounted to a massive regional and class transfer of wealth. Negative real interest rates benefited enterprises that could borrow cheaply and accumulate wealth that could then be redistributed as new investments or higher wages. It would also stimulate inefficient enterprises that could use cheap credit to support wages while disinvesting from technological and skill upgrades, allowing massive structural inefficiencies to develop.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The period saw a major private housing boom fueled by undervalued loans issued by regional banks. This mostly benefited urban-based managerial and professional classes who could access housing loans, while being less favorable to industrial workers and farmers, many of whom resided in the poorer rural regions of the country and a shrinking base of collectivized apartment blocks. These growing disparities fed into anti-elite sentiments, especially across the southern regions of Yugoslavia, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia and central Serbia, where the crisis was felt the most.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-5eaaa32 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"5eaaa32\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-879898b\" data-id=\"879898b\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2be456b elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"2be456b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-51e2d9f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"51e2d9f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">The economic support was also a compromise, offered in lieu of granting Kosovo separate republican status within Yugoslavia, which Tito believed would destabilize the country and provoke a Serbian backlash.\n\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-99d3b7c elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"99d3b7c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-ae97cfc elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"ae97cfc\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0f1926e\" data-id=\"0f1926e\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-556bade elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"556bade\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In an attempt to address such disparities, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents1.worldbank.org\/curated\/en\/717881468759857058\/pdf\/multi-page.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">in 1966, the Yugoslav government established a federal fund to support less-developed regions<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, with Kosovo receiving a significant portion of the aid. This increased investment in Kosovo was partly a result of political maneuvering, as Tito sought to balance regional forces and prevent Serb nationalist reactions. The economic support was also a compromise, offered in lieu of granting Kosovo separate republican status within Yugoslavia, which Tito believed would destabilize the country and provoke a Serbian backlash.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8d2d7b5 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8d2d7b5\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2ade5ba\" data-id=\"2ade5ba\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-387f213 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"387f213\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114404\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/005-Besnik-Pula-Loans-construction-in-KS-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">In the period when Kosovo had a high level of political autonomy, investments by the central government transformed the economy, culture and education. Photo: Creative Commons<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8aca14e elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8aca14e\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-141e2d4\" data-id=\"141e2d4\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-11f4cd1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"11f4cd1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to a calculation by the World Bank, between 1971 and 1975, the federal fund <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/documents1.worldbank.org\/curated\/en\/717881468759857058\/pdf\/multi-page.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">accounted for 70% of fixed capital investments in Kosovo<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, leading to the construction of large infrastructure projects, including roads and electrification, as well as the expansion of Kosovo\u2019s industrial base. The massive investment that flowed into Kosovo via this redistributive mechanism reshaped Kosovo\u2019s economy and is perhaps the reason why, even under conditions of high inflation, the period is often remembered in a positive light. This form of historical memory, however, conceals the Yugoslav economic system\u2019s growing economic disparities and the institutional contradictions, which precipitated the popular explosions of the 1980s.<\/span><\/p><p style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\"><b>Yugoslavia\u2019s black sheep<\/b><\/p><p style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">The outlook in Kosovo in the 1980s was already grim, especially after the mass protests of 1981, given the sudden collapse of investments and the worsening economic situation that contributed to massive unemployment, particularly among youth.\u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-94a5b0b elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"94a5b0b\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-46bcdc1\" data-id=\"46bcdc1\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-65c7e16 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"65c7e16\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">With the institution of a state of emergency in 1981, Kosovo was overrun by Yugoslav military and police. A wave of repression followed, resulting in tens of thousands of Albanians becoming arrested and imprisoned on account of \u201cnationalist expressions\u201d and political displays of \u201cseparatism and irredentism.\u201d The economic situation also worsened, as federal investments dried up and many large investment projects got suspended or became shelved. By the late 1980s, with degrading infrastructure and stalling industrial growth, the great era of prosperity of the previous decade already seemed like a distant memory.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-687e129\" data-id=\"687e129\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-da5fb40 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"da5fb40\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">1981 state of emergency<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-089e961 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"089e961\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On April 2, 1981, the Presidency of Yugoslavia declared a state of emergency in Prishtina and then-Kosovska Mitrovica, which lasted one week. The Presidency sent in special forces to stop the demonstrations, and 30,000 troops were rushed to the province.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-b1560c9 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"b1560c9\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ffad348\" data-id=\"ffad348\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9466d7b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"9466d7b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The mood in Kosovo was bleak. After 1981, Kosovo was treated as Yugoslavia\u2019s black sheep \u2014 one populated by a non-Slavic group allegedly bent on destroying the country. Ironically, it turned out that the rest of Yugoslavia was not living as a big happy family, and broad societal dissatisfaction with the direction of the country ran deep.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8a7c082 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8a7c082\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-a63bde4\" data-id=\"a63bde4\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4abc66c elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"4abc66c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e2189e1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e2189e1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">In many ways, Milo\u0161evi\u0107 represented a typical, upwardly mobile small-town social climber of the Yugoslav economic experiment.\n\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-65fea79 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"65fea79\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-99da30f elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"99da30f\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-b344df5\" data-id=\"b344df5\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0cb3944 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0cb3944\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Serbia became the first place where this negative sentiment manifested in a popular fashion. Given its nationalist expression, Kosovo became its unavoidable target. There was always a faction of the Serbian communist party that saw the Titoite experiment of decentralized federalism with deep suspicion. But in the end, it would not be any of the traditional Serbian communists that would take charge of Serbia&#8217;s transformation in the 1980s, but a fellow from the small town of Po\u017earevac by the name of Slobodan <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In many ways, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> represented a typical, upwardly mobile small-town social climber of the Yugoslav economic experiment. He received a law degree in Belgrade and his ambitions drove him into the Serbian communist party and then a rapidly ascending career in banking.<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.icty.org\/x\/cases\/slobodan_milosevic\/ind\/en\/mil-ii011122e.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 1978,<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> became the head of Belgrade&#8217;s largest bank<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, Beobanka, lending him connections to the international banking community. This high profile, seemingly cosmopolitan fa\u00e7ade, made <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> appear as an ambitious and promising young leader to the Serbian party leader Ivan Stamboli\u0107.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A pivotal moment of <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> capturing greater political power in Serbia came in 1986. That year, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts leaked a notorious and highly controversial Memorandum, which listed a set of national grievances about the alleged historical and ongoing victimization of Serbs in the Yugoslav federation. Stamboli<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> rejected the Memorandum\u2019s nationalist rhetoric, while advocating for amending the Yugoslav constitution in a way that would allow Serbia to reassert control over its provinces, including Kosovo. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, by contrast, did not think the Serbian Academy\u2019s ethnonationalism was to be kept at bay, and instead turned it into a rhetorical weapon in the political effort to remake Yugoslav federalism.<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rferl.org\/a\/1066641.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By 1987, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> had taken over the Serbian party<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, turning against and ultimately ousting his political patron Stamboli<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s rise<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> marked a fundamental change in the Serbian party\u2019s political orientation with regard to Yugoslavia\u2019s future. In true populist style, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> quickly displaced the large array of Yugoslavia\u2019s economic problems by reframing them as issues of nationalist pride. He drew heavily from the Serbian Academy\u2019s discourse to portray Serbs as Yugoslavia\u2019s victims. In the new framing, the political efforts to devolve power in Yugoslavia since the 1960s were part of a larger project \u2014 or conspiracy, if you prefer \u2014 to weaken Serbia and strengthen the other republics.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-3308754 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"3308754\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-8140e86\" data-id=\"8140e86\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-329f6f0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"329f6f0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114410\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/007-Besnik-Pula-LMilosevic-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107 reframed Yugoslavia\u2019s economic problems through the lens of nationalism, portraying Serbs as victims. Photo: Creative Commons.<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-f044536 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"f044536\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-35a282b\" data-id=\"35a282b\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4385270 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4385270\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kosovo\u2019s autonomy was offered as exhibit A of this alleged effort, as it divided power not only within Yugoslavia, but also devolved Serbia into a federal state composed of three subunits \u2014 Vojvodina, Kosovo and central Serbia \u2014 each of which held a veto over Serbia\u2019s policy. The chief task of the Serbian leadership under <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Milo\u0161evi\u0107<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> became rectifying this perceived historical wrong. As a first step, the Serbian leadership demanded the recentralization of the Serbian republic into a unitary state, followed by reasserting Serbia\u2019s dominance within the federal union.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Of course, the first effort meant undoing by force the political compromise on Kosovo\u2019s self-rule within Yugoslavia, which had been struck by a previous generation of leaders. The new Serbian leadership became notoriously ruthless in carrying out this project. Pursuing a wide range of smear campaigns, coups, repression, and outright violence against opponents, the first target was the 1974 Serbian constitution.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The dynamics this unleashed in Kosovo were pernicious and destructive. The party leadership in Kosovo had already been weakened and divided in the 1980s. The passing and\/or retirement of the original group of post-World War II leaders occurred without a proper handover of power to a new generation, many of which suffered under the repression after 1981.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Most prominent is the case of Mahmut Bakalli, a rising leader in the 1970s, who was reprimanded by the federation for his handling of the mass protests of 1981 and forced to resign. Bakalli initially tried to downplay the protests and reign over them via local authorities. When this effort failed and the protests only grew in size and intensity, the federal government immediately took note and intervened directly, undermining Kosovo\u2019s provincial leadership. This meant that, by the late 1980s, the provincial party was in no position to stand up against the onslaught of Serbian pressure to undo Kosovo\u2019s autonomy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 1989, the Serbian leadership rammed through a constitutional reform that effectively revoked Kosovo\u2019s self-rule. Leading up to this revocation and the months after, a number of independent popular movements emerged, sparking mass resistance to Serbia\u2019s forceful takeover of the province. A massive strike by Trep\u00e7a miners in February 1989 in defense of Kosovo\u2019s autonomy opened the door to a wave of other protests and civic initiatives. With the party leadership sidelined or imprisoned, Kosovo Albanian non-party cultural and intellectual elites emerged as spokespersons for the discontent in Kosovo against Serbian rule and growing hopes for a democratic breakthrough.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> In February 1989, 215 Albanian intellectuals signed what\u2019s known as the <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Apeli i 215<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> \u2014 Appeal 215 \u2014 demanding an end to Belgrade\u2019s political assault on Kosovo\u2019s self-government and repression.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The dissent culminated into a full-fledged revolt in 1990. That year, in a clandestine meeting, the remaining members of the Kosovo Assembly \u2014 who had been shut out of the 1989 meeting that voted to overturn Kosovo\u2019s autonomy \u2014 gathered in the town of Ka\u00e7anik to proclaim the adoption of a \u201cConstitution of the Republic of Kosovo.\u201d This constitution was premised on the resolution, passed by the same assembly faction in 1989, that effectively proclaimed the sovereignty of Kosovo in the context of the then still-existing Yugoslav federation.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This year 1990 was also significant because it saw the formation of Kosovo\u2019s first non-communist political party, the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK). While it began as a motley crew of journalists, writers, historians and other academics who increasingly openly stepped up to oppose the Serbian occupation of Kosovo, in December 1990, a founding group of writers and intellectuals proclaimed the establishment of the LDK and elected literary critic Ibrahim Rugova as its chair.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d2c4bd4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d2c4bd4\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-af2ce2d\" data-id=\"af2ce2d\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-11cb08d elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"11cb08d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114413\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/008-Besnik-Pula-Rugova-peacfull-resistance-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">The Democratic League of Kosovo, a party of resistance, formed in 1990. Literary critic Ibrahim Rugova was elected as its chair. Photo:  Ilaz Bylykbashi<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-cfa2623 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"cfa2623\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-04d4fbd\" data-id=\"04d4fbd\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-dae6982 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"dae6982\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Existing non-party political structures, such as the \u201cpopular front\u201d organizations of the Socialist League of Working People almost immediately proclaimed their allegiance to the LDK. This turned, virtually overnight, the mostly intellectual group organized around the Writers Association of Kosovo, which Rugova headed, into a mass political movement. With the provincial communist party turned into an empty shell fully staffed by cronies installed by Belgrade, the LDK\u2019s mass support quickly turned it and Rugova as the primary representatives and voices of Kosovo\u2019s Albanian population.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><b>The 1990s paradox<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">At the turn of the new decade, the political situation in Kosovo became in certain ways paradoxical.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On the one hand, political repression by Serbia increasingly turned to direct violent repression and an apartheid system of rule began to take shape. Kosovo\u2019s police and security forces were disbanded and taken over by forces deployed from Serbia, courts were packed with Serbian regime loyalists and Albanians began to be massively dismissed from jobs in enterprises taken over by Belgrade-installed management. All of this created a desperate and ghastly situation of persecution.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">On the other hand, the crumbling of single-party rule created opportunities for greater political and civic expression. New channels, such as new independent media, emerged for the emerging Kosovo Albanian counter-elites and members of the public to express their opposition to Serbian rule, document human rights abuses, as well as issue demands for democratization and seek international support for Kosovo\u2019s plight.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In other words, unlike the post-1981 repression during which dissidence was hidden from the regime to avoid direct persecution and imprisonment, the 1990s began with a situation in which mass repression and great optimism for the future coexisted.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hope of the era came also to be sustained by a series of coordinated political actions and mass mobilization that culminated in what came to be known as Kosovo\u2019s parallel state. The naked power grab and outright ruthlessness of the methods of Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s takeover of Kosovo left the Serbian regime with few political allies on the Albanian side, the remainder of which were quickly discredited and held little to no authority among the Albanian majority.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Instead, Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s frontal attack on Kosovo\u2019s institutions generated a relatively homogenized, nationally-based popular mobilization against what Albanian elites described as an outright military occupation. The coordinated moves by the remaining members of the Kosovo Assembly, as well as the LDK, became critical in channeling this mobilization into organized forms of popular resistance.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2523376 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"2523376\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3df28ae\" data-id=\"3df28ae\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-586e7a8 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"586e7a8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-922cede elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"922cede\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">The KLA, too, oscillated between depicting itself as an independent national liberation group and an armed component of the parallel state of Kosovo. <\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-43f4911 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"43f4911\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-a31b6e5 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"a31b6e5\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-88b495c\" data-id=\"88b495c\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7005d0b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"7005d0b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>The parallel state became a symbolic expression of resistance, and the shadow \u201cRepublic of Kosovo\u201d was a political fiction with mobilizational value, more than an active political effort to overcome Serbian rule. Clandestine elections in 1992 elected a new multiparty parliament (though dominated by the LDK), and Rugova as president of the shadow Republic of Kosovo. This set of institutions consolidated the parallel state, a vast, Kosovo-wide network of semi-clandestine educational, medical, charitable and political organizations coordinated primarily by the LDK.<\/p><p>The 1990 Ka\u00e7anik constitution foresaw a republican and parliamentary structure and a popularly elected president. Yet other than Rugova\u2019s performative acts as president, no other institution became functional, or did so at a distance. The new parliament of Kosovo, elected in 1992, did not continue to meet.\u00a0<\/p><p>The parliament held a single clandestine meeting in 1992, in which it elected medical doctor Bujar Bukoshi as prime minister, alongside a cabinet of ministers, who were promptly forced into exile in Germany. Moreover, there were multiple controversies, especially over the creation of interior and defense ministries of the shadow Republic of Kosovo. The issue of organized armed troops of the clandestine Republic of Kosovo became a charged issue as well in the ensuing conflict between Bukoshi and Rugova in the late 1990s, as well as between Bukoshi and the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who saw themselves as the only legitimate fighting force in Kosovo, in opposition to the armed forces of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo (FARK).<\/p><p>Willing to tolerate political dissent and Rugova\u2019s public proclamations for an independent Kosovo, Serbia would not tolerate the organization of potentially armed Albanian forces that could directly confront its rule in Kosovo. The matter became particularly sensitive in the period between 1993-95, when wars ravaged Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the tie-up of Serbian resources in those efforts seemed to create a chance for a \u201cthird front\u201d in Kosovo.\u00a0<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By the mid-1990s, the parallel state became the framework of growing internal political conflict among Kosovo Albanians, especially as Rugova\u2019s insistence on peaceful resistance and his path of waiting for external intervention to end the Serbian occupational regime and resolve the problem of Kosovo\u2019s status seemed to not bear fruit. After the 1995 Dayton Accords, which crafted a peace deal for Bosnia and Herzegovina and ignored the issue of Kosovo, oppositional voices against Rugova\u2019s approach only grew in number and intensity.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The KLA\u2019s birth ha<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">s its beginnings in that dissent. The KLA, too, oscillated between depicting itself as an independent national liberation group and an armed component of the parallel state of Kosovo.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-41e29d4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"41e29d4\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f85ae65\" data-id=\"f85ae65\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-622e29b elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"622e29b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"wp-caption\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114416\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/009-Besnik-Pula-KLA-326x183.jpg 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<figcaption class=\"widget-image-caption wp-caption-text\">The Kosovo Liberation Army made its first public appearance in 1997. Photo: Creative Commons.<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-5787c11 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"5787c11\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-9911b7c\" data-id=\"9911b7c\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e927944 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e927944\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Regardless of such internal political tensions, the parallel state embodied a set of deep solidarities and networks of support that enabled a semblance of normalcy for a population that had increasingly become subject to what was correctly labeled an apartheid-type system that Serbia constructed in Kosovo during that period.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The preservation of an Albanian-language education system is a storied accomplishment of the parallel state<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, as Albanian teachers and students were shut out of school buildings a<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">nd the campus of the University of Prishtina. Most of this was accomplished by schools being settled and operating in private homes. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Culture went \u201cunderground\u201d as c<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">afes and restaurants served as galleries and exhibits and replaced intellectual salons as sites of political discussion. This was an effort that demanded great danger and sacrifice.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The creation of a system of financial support, including financial support for teachers, was critical in the existence of the parallel state and sustaining the resistance against Serbian rule. This system was run by the LDK and relied on a voluntary 3% tax paid by Albanians in Kosovo and the diaspora. This fund remained under the control of Bukoshi, who was in Germany, and was used to support education and later the war efforts in the late 1990s. The Mother Teresa organization ran a large network of charities and clinics that also provided basic support to a population under threat.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The diaspora came to play a pivotal financial role through its hard currency remittances, enabling Kosovo to survive the otherwise bleak economic conditions in the 1990s. Solidarity within Kosovo and through the diaspora manifested through a series of gatherings, campaigns of support and the local activism of diaspora members to gain international support for Kosovo\u2019s plight.<\/span><\/p><p><b>A personal conclusion<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As a member of the diaspora in the 1990s, I also helped support campaigns advocating for Kosovo\u2019s independence. These gained momentum over time. Many of those who left Kosovo in the 1990s took part in protests at the U.N. headquarters in New York, and the White House and the Capitol in Washington, D.C.. A number of prominent diaspora members created lobbying groups like the Albanian-American Civic League under the leadership of former congressman Joe DioGuardi and the National Albanian-American Council. Both these organizations played pivotal roles in lobbying for U.S. support for Kosovo throughout the 1990s.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Around the mid-1990s, as a young student, I was introduced to the emerging technology of the internet. As the internet suddenly took off, it became one of the key platforms through which a group of us, connected through diasporic networks in New York, mobilized to advocate for U.S. support of Kosovo\u2019s independence. Providing a new channel for disseminating information, we would make available over the Internet, to a much wider international public, monthly and weekly reports from the Council for the Defense of Human Rights and Freedoms (CDHRF), one of the independent organizations established during the pluralistic openings of 1989. With its vast network of activists, CDHRF meticulously recorded incidents of Serbian state violence across Kosovo and became a key actor in documenting and making internationally known the state-led terror of the period.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">My path led me from activism to academia at a very critical time for Kosovo, shaping my early intellectual interests. In 1999, I was a graduate student in the program for Eurasian, Russian and East European Studies at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.. Given my humble immigrant background and previous attendance of a public college in New York, being accepted into Georgetown seemed like a significant achievement. In my second year in the program, I decided to write my master\u2019s thesis on Kosovo\u2019s parallel state.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-7143e74 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"7143e74\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-b1b3f6c\" data-id=\"b1b3f6c\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-307043f elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"307043f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-667675c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"667675c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Writing my thesis felt like a solitary endeavor, documenting an era that might soon become irrelevant for a place that could potentially disappear.<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-afb529f elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"afb529f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-c7ae66e\" data-id=\"c7ae66e\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-adb5303 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"adb5303\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">I vividly remember sitting in the European Reading Room at the Library of Congress, searching for archival sources on Yugoslavia and Kosovo during the 1980s and 1990s. This was a time when NATO bombing of the rump Yugoslavia (Serbia, Kosovo and Montenegro) had commenced, and hundreds of thousands of Albanians, including my family members, were forcibly displaced by Serbian military and paramilitary forces. The feeling of deep anxiety and grief as I read about the history of a place I feared might cease to exist is still etched in my memory. This experience has instilled in me a profound empathy for \u00e9migr\u00e9s, refugees and migrants whose home countries are embroiled in conflict.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-4533091 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"4533091\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6c702c4\" data-id=\"6c702c4\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-17394a7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"17394a7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">During the height of the bombing in the spring of 1999, the situation in Kosovo seemed dire. Hundreds of thousands were displaced, and many were being massacred. With the U.S. refusing to commit ground troops, it was uncertain whether the bombing would end favorably for the Kosovo Albanians. Writing my thesis felt like a solitary endeavor, documenting an era that might soon become irrelevant for a place that could potentially disappear.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Fortunately, my fears were only partially realized. The arrival of NATO troops in Kosovo in June 1999 allowed many to return home. Kosovo began its reconstruction and entered the new century in relative peace, albeit under a radically different political configuration dominated by NATO and the U.N.. The decade marked by despair, hope, fear and courage had come to an end, ushering in a new era, and a new millennium, of great energy and enthusiasm for the future. The parallel state, which was the focus of my thesis, quickly dissolved, overtaken by other institutions, as I discovered during my return trip in July 1999, exactly eight years after my initial departure. As someone who had long left the growing pains of teenage years behind and was extensively Americanized, I felt increasingly like an alien in the place that was supposed to represent \u201chome.\u201d\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In retrospect, my feeling that I was documenting a past, both personal and collective, that was unrepeatable and soon to be forgotten, turned out to not be entirely inaccurate.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><b>Feature Image: Creative Commons.<\/b><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/the-90s-in-pieces\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Return to Monograph.<\/i><\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2b1057a elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"2b1057a\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-5293548\" data-id=\"5293548\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f221671 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"f221671\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" id=\"Layer_1\" x=\"0px\" y=\"0px\" viewBox=\"0 0 659 627\" style=\"enable-background:new 0 0 659 627;\" xml:space=\"preserve\"><style type=\"text\/css\">\t.st0{fill:#FDE801;}\t.st1{fill:#363635;}<\/style><g>\t<path class=\"st0\" d=\"M652.9,260.8c-0.3,0.7-0.6,1.7-0.9,2.6c-35.8,100.2-71.7,200.4-107.4,300.6c-0.9,2.7-2.1,3.9-5.1,4.4  c-43.3,7.4-86.5,15-129.8,22.6c-54.7,9.6-109.4,19.1-164.1,28.7c-6.9,1.2-13.8,2.1-20.6,3.6c-3,0.7-4.6-0.2-6.3-2.3  c-18.8-22.3-37.6-44.5-56.4-66.8c-50.3-59.5-100.6-119-151-178.5c-2.3-2.8-2.9-4.9-1.6-8.3c35.7-99.2,71.3-198.4,106.8-297.6  c1.2-3.4,2.9-5,6.5-5.6c45.5-8,91-16.2,136.5-24.3c55-9.9,110.1-19.4,164.9-30c11.2-2.2,17.3,0.4,24.6,9  c63.2,75,126.9,149.6,190.5,224.3c3.9,4.6,7.8,9.1,11.6,13.7C651.8,257.8,653.1,258.8,652.9,260.8z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st1\" d=\"M154.2,305.3c11.1-20.1,33.5-21.1,51.6-16c7,2,13,5.7,18.2,11c5.5,5.6,7.6,12.3,7.5,19.9  c-0.1,17.3-0.1,34.6,0,52c0,5.7,0.2,11.3,0.5,17c0.3,6.7,1.7,8.1,8.1,9.2c1.5,0.2,3,0.4,4.5,0.5c1.3,0.1,2.3,0.2,2.3,1.9  c0,1.5-0.8,2.1-2.2,2.1c-0.5,0-1,0-1.5,0c-22.3,0-44.6,0-67,0c-1.6,0-3.6,0.4-3.5-2.2c0.1-2.3,2-1.8,3.4-2c7.3-1.1,8-1.5,8.6-9  c0.5-6.5,0.4-13,0.4-19.5c0-18.7,0-37.3-0.2-56c0-2.5-0.4-5-0.7-7.4c-0.8-5.4-3.4-9.4-9-10.7c-6.8-1.5-12.2,0.7-15.6,6  c-3.1,4.8-4.8,9.9-4.8,15.9c0.4,23.1,0.2,46.3,0.3,69.5c0,9.2,0.5,9.8,9.3,11.2c1.5,0.2,3.1,0.2,2.8,2.5c-0.3,2-1.7,1.7-3,1.7  c-22.8,0-45.6,0-68.5,0c-1.4,0-2.7,0.1-2.8-1.9c-0.1-2,1.2-1.9,2.6-2.1c9.8-1,12.5-0.2,12.5-14.4c0-45.6,0-91.3,0-136.9  c0-12.3-1.3-13.7-13.3-14.9c-1.2-0.1-2.3,0-3.5-0.3c-1.3-0.2-3.2,0.4-3.2-2.1c0-2.4,1.7-2,3.1-2c3.5,0,7,0,10.5,0  c16,0,32,0.1,48-0.1c4-0.1,5.4,0.9,5.3,5.2c-0.4,23,0.4,46-0.8,68.9C154.1,302.8,154.2,303.4,154.2,305.3z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st1\" d=\"M536.4,340.8c-10.7,0-21.3,0.2-32-0.1c-4-0.1-4.7,1.2-4.5,4.8c0.7,10.7,2.1,21.2,6.8,31  c9.3,19.5,35,24,50.4,8.8c4.9-4.9,8.6-10.6,11.3-16.9c0.6-1.5,0.7-3.9,3.6-2.5c2.9,1.4,1,3.1,0.3,4.5  c-9.2,20.4-25.1,32.1-47.2,34.3c-19.2,2-37.5-1.4-53.1-14c-15.2-12.2-20.3-28.7-19.7-47.4c1.3-37.2,34.6-56.1,60.5-56.5  c7.7-0.1,15.3,0.2,22.8,2.2c21.8,5.7,37.1,25.4,37.5,47.9c0.1,3.1-0.7,4-3.8,3.9C558.4,340.7,547.4,340.8,536.4,340.8z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st1\" d=\"M410.7,355.7c6.9-16.8,14.8-32.8,19.4-50c2.4-9,0.7-11-8.3-12.1c-1-0.1-2-0.2-3-0.3c-1.3-0.1-2.2-0.6-2.2-2.1  c0-1.5,0.8-2.1,2.2-2.1c12,0,24,0,36,0c1.1,0,1.9,0.5,2,1.7c0.1,1.1-0.1,2-1.3,2.4c-0.6,0.2-1.3,0.4-2,0.3  c-10.1-0.6-14.5,6.1-17.6,14.1c-10.3,26.5-20.6,52.9-30.9,79.4c-0.6,1.5-1.2,3.1-1.8,4.6c-4.6,12.2-4.6,12-17.4,12.1  c-3.5,0-4.8-1.4-6-4.4C368,368.8,356,338.2,344,307.6c-0.5-1.2-1.1-2.4-1.5-3.7c-2.1-7.1-6.5-10.9-14.2-10.7  c-1.3,0-3.7,0.7-3.5-2.2c0.2-2.7,2.4-1.8,3.8-1.8c23.3-0.1,46.6-0.1,70,0c1.4,0,3.7-1,4,1.6c0.4,3.1-2.2,2.3-3.8,2.6  c-7.6,1.5-9.7,3.6-7.5,10C397.6,321,404.3,338.3,410.7,355.7z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st1\" d=\"M311,341c0,15.1,0,30.3,0,45.4c0,9.6,1.5,11.1,11,12.3c1.5,0.2,4.2-1.1,4.2,1.9c0,3.3-2.9,2.1-4.5,2.1  c-22.8,0.1-45.6,0.1-68.4,0.1c-0.8,0-1.7,0-2.5,0c-1.4,0-2.1-0.6-2.2-2.1c0-1.6,1-1.9,2.3-1.9c13.1,0,13.1-4.4,13.1-15.9  c0-25.1,0-50.3,0-75.4c0-1.3,0-2.7-0.2-4c-0.8-7.8-2-8.8-9.7-9.9c-2.2-0.3-6.5,1.4-6.2-2.6c0.3-3.9,4.4-1.8,6.6-1.8  c17.3-0.2,34.6,0,51.9-0.2c3.5,0,4.5,1,4.4,4.5c-0.2,15.8-0.1,31.6-0.1,47.4C310.9,341,310.9,341,311,341z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st1\" d=\"M287.2,272.1c-13.6,0.1-23.7-9.8-23.6-22.9c0.1-12.6,10.1-22.2,23.2-22.3c13.7-0.1,24.2,9.7,24,22.6  C310.7,262.2,300.4,272.1,287.2,272.1z\"><\/path>\t<path class=\"st0\" d=\"M515.2,335.6c-4,0-8-0.1-12,0c-2.7,0.1-3.4-0.9-3.4-3.4c0.2-10,0.7-19.9,3.1-29.6c2-8,5.5-11.4,11.6-11.5  c7.2-0.2,11.6,3.2,13.9,11c3.1,10.2,2,20.8,2.4,31.2c0.1,2.2-1.1,2.4-2.8,2.4C523.9,335.6,519.6,335.6,515.2,335.6z\"><\/path><\/g><\/svg><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-b217ef2 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"b217ef2\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-1df8b37\" data-id=\"1df8b37\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ce9b24c elementor-widget elementor-widget-global elementor-global-104647 elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ce9b24c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong><em>D\u00ebshironi t\u00eb mb\u00ebshtetni gazetarin\u00eb ton\u00eb?<\/em><\/strong><\/p><p>N\u00eb Kosovo 2.0, p\u00ebrpiqemi t\u00eb jemi shtyll\u00eb e gazetaris\u00eb s\u00eb pavarur e me cil\u00ebsi t\u00eb lart\u00eb, n\u00eb nj\u00eb epok\u00eb ku \u00ebsht\u00eb gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb sfiduese t\u2019i mbash k\u00ebto standarde dhe ta ndjek\u00ebsh t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00ebn dhe llogaridh\u00ebnien pa u frik\u00ebsuar. P\u00ebr ta siguruar pavar\u00ebsin\u00eb ton\u00eb t\u00eb vazhdueshme, po prezantojm\u00eb HIVE, modelin ton\u00eb t\u00eb ri t\u00eb an\u00ebtar\u00ebsimit, i cili u ofron atyre q\u00eb e vler\u00ebsojn\u00eb gazetarin\u00eb ton\u00eb, mund\u00ebsin\u00eb t\u00eb kontribuojn\u00eb e b\u00ebhen pjes\u00eb e misionit ton\u00eb.<\/p><p><em>An\u00ebtar\u00ebsohuni n\u00eb \u201cHIVE\u201d ose konsideroni nj\u00eb donacion.&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ef4c4c7\" data-id=\"ef4c4c7\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1dffb67 elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"1dffb67\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/complete-support\/?type=subscription&#038;package_id=basic&#038;duration=three-month\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Basic<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c1d85e6 elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"c1d85e6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/complete-support\/?type=subscription&#038;package_id=standard&#038;duration=three-month\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Standard<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-17c1d19 elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"17c1d19\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/complete-support\/?type=subscription&#038;package_id=premium&#038;duration=three-month\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Premium<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f9066a5 elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"f9066a5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/support-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">One time donation<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>ENG SHQ B\/C\/S LONGFORM Foundations of Kosovo\u2019s parallel state Personal and economic context for Yugoslavia\u2019s collapse By Besnik Pula |&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":317,"featured_media":114816,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"elementor_header_footer","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[972],"tags":[96],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/115414"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/317"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=115414"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/115414\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":116151,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/115414\/revisions\/116151"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/114816"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=115414"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=115414"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=115414"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}