{"id":114815,"date":"2025-03-18T11:41:20","date_gmt":"2025-03-18T10:41:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/?p=114815"},"modified":"2025-03-18T12:52:15","modified_gmt":"2025-03-18T11:52:15","slug":"kosovo-in-the-90s-an-economy-for-the-darkest-hour","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/kosovo-in-the-90s-an-economy-for-the-darkest-hour\/","title":{"rendered":"Kosovo in the \u201890s: an economy for the darkest hour"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"114815\" class=\"elementor elementor-114815\" data-elementor-post-type=\"post\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-b03ef88 elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"b03ef88\" data-element_type=\"section\" 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data-id=\"1924205\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-009a4ea\" data-id=\"009a4ea\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0fe7002 elementor-align-left elementor-mobile-align-left elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"0fe7002\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-xs\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/longform\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">LONGFORM<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-af5dc88 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"af5dc88\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e718d35\" data-id=\"e718d35\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5236943 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"5236943\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kosovo in the \u201890s: an economy for the darkest hour<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c26ad0e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c26ad0e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Economic structures from decades past continue to shape Kosovo\u2019s economy.\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1ebe811 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"1ebe811\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b260c8d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b260c8d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/author\/edisonjak\/\" style=\"border-bottom: 1.3px solid yellow;\" target=\"_blank\">By Edison Jakurti<\/a>  | March 18, 2025<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-caa4dcc elementor-shape-square e-grid-align-left elementor-grid-0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-social-icons\" data-id=\"caa4dcc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"social-icons.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-social-icons-wrapper elementor-grid\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-facebook elementor-repeater-item-5e387e1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/Kosovo2.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Facebook<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-facebook\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-twitter elementor-repeater-item-7ae3a81\" href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/kosovo2point0\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Twitter<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-twitter\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-grid-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-icon elementor-social-icon elementor-social-icon-instagram elementor-repeater-item-8daffd8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/kosovo2point0\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-screen-only\">Instagram<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-instagram\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b699d79 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_text elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"b699d79\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-5fffb84 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"5fffb84\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-28a7d40\" data-id=\"28a7d40\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4f18707 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"4f18707\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From today\u2019s perspective, living in Kosovo in the 1990s can be best captured by reversing Charles Dickens\u2019 monumental opening in \u201cA Tale of Two Cities\u201d: \u201cit was the worst of times, it was the best of times.\u201d Within just a decade, we went from losing the best we were given in Yugoslavia \u2014 autonomy; to gaining the least any nation deserves \u2014 freedom; and eventually, independence.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Much is known about how it started. Slobodan Milo\u0161evi\u0107 comes to power as president of Serbia in the late \u201880s, revokes Kosovo\u2019s autonomy granted by the 1974 Yugoslav constitution and subjugates the region with brute force. Much is known how it ended. Serbia conducts ethnic cleansing by imprisoning, beating, raping and killing thousands, to finally displace around 1 million Albanians, many of whom returned home after the liberation in June 1999.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Much less is known though what happened in between. Especially about how Kosovo\u2019s economy survived through its darkest hour.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">My own childhood belongs to this era, filled with stories of resilience and survival. Having a family member politically imprisoned in the \u201880s meant that I had to go back in time to understand the roots of our problems in the \u201890s. Having family members politically persecuted, who fled to Western Europe, exposed me to the critical role of the diaspora in economic survival. And having relatives expelled from their jobs during the massive purge of 1989-1990 made me realize the breadth of such historical events.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Back in those days, these were personal stories. As years passed, I came to realize that those were not just my stories. Those were our stories, shared by many of my peers who are the children of the \u201890s.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Among older generations, however, there are more nuanced views of the past, particularly before the 1990s. While there is little dispute about the facts and events, there is less commonality in perceptions and metrics. For some, Kosovo\u2019s economic development in Yugoslavia, relative to its initial level, was seen as considerable progress. For others, progress was not merely measured in terms of Kosovo\u2019s own position but relative to the other republics within the federation.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To fully understand Kosovo&#8217;s economic landscape in the 20th century\u2019s last decade, it\u2019s essential to briefly reflect on the four preceding decades, particularly Kosovo\u2019s economic organization during the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1945 onward. These years left enduring economic imprints that shaped, and continue to shape, Kosovo&#8217;s economy today.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Kosovo in former Yugoslavia: a history of persistent inequality<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Comparing standards of living under different economic systems is inevitable, especially for countries that have transitioned between them. Kosovo is not unique in this regard. Memories of life under Yugoslav socialism are mixed: for some, it was a period of stability, while others recall harsh economic realities.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In transitioning economies, nostalgia for socialism often reflects unfulfilled promises of capitalism, which was heralded as a model that would blend socialism\u2019s social safety net with new political and economic freedoms. Yet, many countries got trapped in a prolonged \u201ctransition\u201d \u2014 with restricted political freedoms, economic opportunities that failed to deliver widespread prosperity and a rapidly eroding social safety net. For many, this protracted period deepened disillusionment rather than delivering the promised economic gains.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-4d9bddf elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"4d9bddf\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-90f3b20\" data-id=\"90f3b20\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-67b8217 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"67b8217\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-aa73beb elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"aa73beb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Groups like party elites enjoyed privileges that set them apart, while regions like Kosovo were marginalized, valued mainly for their natural resources rather than substantial investment or development. <\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8358f89 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"8358f89\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-661443a elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"661443a\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6a37c69\" data-id=\"6a37c69\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6934eec elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"6934eec\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">Despite socialism\u2019s flaws, it generally produced lower levels of economic inequality, seen in more equitable distributions of income and wealth. Yet, this is a broad generalization. Socialist systems like those of Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union and China varied significantly, and the differences between within-country and between-country inequalities complicate the picture.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Even within socialist systems, some groups and regions were &#8220;more equal&#8221; than others. Groups like party elites enjoyed privileges that set them apart, while regions like Kosovo were marginalized, valued mainly for their natural resources rather than substantial investment or development. This inequality in resource allocation highlights how Yugoslavia\u2019s socialist ideals often fell short of truly equitable outcomes.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If I tell you that Kosovo was the least <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">developed country in Yugoslavia<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, I have not told you any news. But, thanks to data from The Maddison Project Database \u2014 a research initiative founded by the late economist Angus Maddison \u2014 we can examine and quantify the magnitude of income inequality between former Yugoslav republics and Kosovo from 1952 to 1990. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The data for Yugoslavia are unpublished estimates supplied to the Maddison Project in 2011 by Branko Milanovi\u0107.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-42c647a elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"42c647a\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-532a350\" data-id=\"532a350\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-847ab12 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"847ab12\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>While this analysis will not resolve all perspectives on the socialist era, it provides crucial data-driven insights into Kosovo\u2019s persistent economic disadvantage within Yugoslavia. This historical inequality laid the groundwork for the economic challenges we in Kosovo faced in the 1990s.<\/p><p><b>Unequal beginnings<\/b><\/p><p>Kosovo\u2019s economy in the immediate post-World War II years was severely underdeveloped. Long centuries of occupation by various empires and numerous bloody wars left little room for progress. In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">1948, approximately 81% of Kosovo\u2019s economy was agriculture-based<\/a>, compared to about\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">67% in Yugoslavia as a whole<\/a>. Kosovo\u2019s population,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">69% of which was Albanian<\/a>, faced severe educational challenges; an\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">estimated 78% of those over age 10 were illiterate<\/a>.<\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The earliest data we have from the Maddison Project Database, dating to 1952, reveal that Kosovo had by far the lowest income levels in Yugoslavia \u2014 a fact that may come as little surprise given its history.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-8fb9e6b\" data-id=\"8fb9e6b\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c357307 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"c357307\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph.png\" data-elementor-open-lightbox=\"yes\" data-e-action-hash=\"#elementor-action%3Aaction%3Dlightbox%26settings%3DeyJpZCI6MTE0NzczLCJ1cmwiOiJodHRwczpcL1wvYXJjaGl2ZS5rb3Nvdm90d29wb2ludHplcm8uY29tXC93cC1jb250ZW50XC91cGxvYWRzXC8yMDI1XC8wM1wvazIwXzkwc2Vjb25vbXlfaW50ZXh0Z3JhcGgucG5nIn0%3D\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1920\" height=\"1080\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph.png\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-114773\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph.png 1920w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph-300x169.png 300w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph-1024x576.png 1024w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph-768x432.png 768w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph-1536x864.png 1536w, https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_intextgraph-326x183.png 326w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7c1e96b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7c1e96b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<p class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Although Kosovo had the lowest income level in 1952, its cumulative income growth by 1960 surpassed only that of Montenegro; all other republics saw larger increases. A similar pattern emerged during the 1961-1970 period, with all republics \u2014 except Bosnia and Herzegovina \u2014 experiencing faster income growth than Kosovo.<\/p>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-112fa94 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"112fa94\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f5352a0\" data-id=\"f5352a0\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2cc5419 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2cc5419\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As an economist, I must acknowledge that while per capita income is a widely used metric, it falls short in capturing the many dimensions of inequality, which in Kosovo extended beyond income, encompassing disparities in opportunities and overall quality of life.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">According to the 1953 Yugoslav census, although only about one in four residents in Kosovo was a Serb or Montenegrin, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">they occupied two out of three \u201cadministrative and leadership\u201d positions and made up half of the factory workforce<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Life expectancy and mortality rates in Kosovo were also disproportionate to the other Yugoslav republics, further indicating huge disparities in development levels.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-988c0c9 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"988c0c9\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2e4d489\" data-id=\"2e4d489\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d6973ec elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d6973ec\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Although industrialization was long overdue in Kosovo&#8217;s primarily agrarian economy, it took over 12 years after the end of World War II for Kosovo to start receiving federal investment funds for industrialization. The disparity in industrial capacity across Yugoslavia was stark. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By 1958, Slovenia had nearly<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> 10 times as many industrial enterprises<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> as Kosovo<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">: 464 compared to 49.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The interwar and the post-World War II agrarian reform was a major hit to the agrarian economy, and resulted in great food shortages. So, what was the policy response of the regime to a majority-rural population whose land was being confiscated and whose industry was developing at snail\u2019s pace? Emigration, especially the massive emigration of Kosovo Albanians to Turkey, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">a process preceded by demographic engineering by Yugoslav authorities,<\/span><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">who<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> recorded Albanians as Turks<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. While official figures are non-existent, it is estimated that <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from 1945 to 1966, around 100,000 Albanians emigrated to Turkey<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-63ed2b3\" data-id=\"63ed2b3\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d7464d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"2d7464d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Life expectancy and mortality rate<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f39f4d9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f39f4d9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<p class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Life expectancy in 1954 further shows these disparities; while the average life expectancy in Yugoslavia was approximately 57 years for men and 59 years for women, men in Kosovo lived an average of eight years less, and women lived 14 years less than their counterparts in the rest of Yugoslavia.\n<br><br>\nAnother indicator of the quality of life is the mortality rate. Infant mortality was also disproportionately high; in 1955, while Yugoslavia saw about 113 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, Kosovo\u2019s rate was approximately 51 deaths higher. The same year, Kosovo had around 18 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants, compared to the Yugoslav average of 11.<\/p>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1f5ea41 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"1f5ea41\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-18100a7\" data-id=\"18100a7\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ee32a9d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ee32a9d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>The 1968 turning point<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For Kosovo, 1968 marked a critical historical turning point, although with different developments than elsewhere in Europe. Albanian demands for a republic and <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">university<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, along with shifts in the approach by Josip Broz Tito, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">president of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from 1953 to 1980,<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> created new circumstances. While Kosovo was not granted the status of a republic, which would have made it an equal constituent of Yugoslavia, the constitutional changes of 1968, followed by the 1974 constitution, elevated Kosovo to the status of an autonomous region. These changes brought significant legal and political shifts, paving the way for progress.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">For example, prior to 1970, only a handful of Kosovo Albanians attended universities in other Yugoslav capitals like Belgrade or Zagreb. A key milestone for Kosovo was the establishment of the University of Prishtina in 1970, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the first university in the country. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Interest in higher education surged, and between 1968 and 1978, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the share of Kosovo Albanians in Kosovo\u2019s total student population grew from 38% to 72%<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This substantial increase produced a skilled labor force that no longer fit within an agrarian economy.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-74a5ab0 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"74a5ab0\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2d4cb7b\" data-id=\"2d4cb7b\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-42c8d63 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"42c8d63\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1ac1e2e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1ac1e2e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">For many, higher education became less a pathway to employment than a way to avoid being labeled as unemployed or to postpone emigration.\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a1e801f elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"a1e801f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1880e58 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"1880e58\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6b3dc05\" data-id=\"6b3dc05\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-74bf940 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"74bf940\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">Although industrial development began to accelerate, much of the investment was directed toward extractive industries \u2014 chemicals, minerals, metals and power plants \u2014 that supplied raw materials and energy to other Yugoslav regions. This approach reinforced Kosovo\u2019s place as a periphery supporting the economic core elsewhere in Yugoslavia. Kosovo&#8217;s population was the fastest growing, and the industrial workforce expanded during this period, yet industrial policies were not crafted to address the rising supply of labor.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-ac34dbb elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"ac34dbb\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6b7baeb\" data-id=\"6b7baeb\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b833e8f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b833e8f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>As a growing number of highly skilled graduates from the University of Prishtina entered the labor market, capital-intensive investments meant that the demand was more for machines than workers.\u00a0For many, higher education became less a pathway to employment than a way to avoid being labeled as unemployed or to postpone emigration.<\/p><p>Persisting ethnic disparities in employment meant that the socialist self-management system in Kosovo mostly empowered workers from certain nationalities. By 1980,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">one in five Serbs received a state salary, while only one in 11 Albanians was on the state payroll<\/a>. As a result, many Albanians sought better economic opportunities abroad, leading to another wave of emigration, this time primarily to Western Europe.<\/p><p>Although the late 1960s and 1970s are often regarded as a period of substantial development, the income per capita growth in Kosovo tells a different story.\u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-215cd7e\" data-id=\"215cd7e\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a772467 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a772467\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kosovo\u2019s per capita<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c8ca55c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c8ca55c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<p class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Between 1971 and 1980, Kosovo's per capita income grew by only about 30% \u2014 lower than any of Yugoslavia\u2019s republics, which averaged over 49%. For comparison, the next lowest growth rate was 44% in Macedonia, followed by Bosnia and Herzegovina at 47%, Croatia at 51%, Serbia at 52%, Slovenia at 55% and Montenegro with the highest rate of 60%.<\/p>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-722bdba elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"722bdba\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-5b89fa2\" data-id=\"5b89fa2\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ba13ab2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ba13ab2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>A balance sheet of four decades<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In the decade before the wars of the 1990s, political tensions and an intense economic crisis gripped Yugoslavia, hitting Kosovo\u2019s already fragile economy hardest. Hyperinflation severely eroded purchasing power in Yugoslavia, with <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1465-7287.1992.tb00358.x\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">the average annual inflation rate surging from 36% in 1981 to a staggering 1,240% by 1989<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. From 1981 to 1990, Kosovo experienced a sharper decline in average income than any Yugoslav republic, with per capita income plummeting by 25%. By comparison, Macedonia and Montenegro \u2014 which had the next largest drops \u2014 saw a roughly 14% decrease, while the Yugoslav average was about 11%. This disparity is unsurprising, as less developed economies tend to be the least resilient during recessions and crises.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Unemployment in Kosovo also soared, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/balkantragedycha00wood\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">rising from around 40% in 1981 to 60% by 1988<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Parallel to the rising political tensions, which culminated with Milo\u0161evi\u0107 revoking Kosovo\u2019s autonomy status in 1989, Kosovo\u2019s economic landscape in the 1980s was marked by skyrocketing prices, surging unemployment and sharply falling incomes.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The crises of the 1980s remain vivid memories for many, yet, as the first decade after Tito\u2019s death, this period is often seen as distinct from Tito&#8217;s era. While each decade had its own developments, from a long-term macrohistorical perspective, the preceding decades were far from idyllic. Reflecting on <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Tito\u2019s Yugoslavia <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from the perspective<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> of Kosovar Albanians, the historian Noel Malcolm writes<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">:<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d62dce8 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d62dce8\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6ff48d5\" data-id=\"6ff48d5\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b970000 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b970000\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">It is understandable that, looking back from a vantage-point after 1989, the Albanians of Kosova should view the Tito years with somewhat rosy-tinted indulgence. But a more complete judgment on Tito&#8217;s Kosova policy must also be a much more heavily qualified one. Some of his measures to respect the rights of the Albanians were only half-measures; some developed only under the pressure of circumstances (including the pressure of unsatisfied Albanian demands); and some were made for pragmatic reasons quite unconnected with the needs of Kosova itself (such as the desire to divert Serb colonists to the Vojvodina instead).<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1dc5f9d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"1dc5f9d\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f7848db\" data-id=\"f7848db\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-098d145 elementor-arrows-position-inside elementor-pagination-position-outside elementor-widget elementor-widget-image-carousel\" data-id=\"098d145\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;slides_to_show&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;autoplay&quot;:&quot;no&quot;,&quot;navigation&quot;:&quot;both&quot;,&quot;infinite&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;effect&quot;:&quot;slide&quot;,&quot;speed&quot;:500}\" data-widget_type=\"image-carousel.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel-wrapper swiper-container\" dir=\"ltr\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel swiper-wrapper\" aria-live=\"polite\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"1 of 5\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide1.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide1\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"2 of 5\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide2.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide2\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"3 of 5\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide3.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide3\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"4 of 5\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide4-1.png\" alt=\"per anglisht\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"5 of 5\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual1_slide5-1.png\" alt=\"anglisht\" \/><\/figure><\/div>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-prev\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-left\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-next\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-right\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-pagination\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-f027d38 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"f027d38\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3e03c13\" data-id=\"3e03c13\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-eda0c24 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"eda0c24\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From the visuals above, we can draw several conclusions.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">First, from 1952 to 1990, Kosovo had lower per capita income growth than any republic in Yugoslavia. Second, even during the period considered the most prosperous for Kosovo, from 1971 to 1980, Kosovo&#8217;s per capita income growth remained the lowest in Yugoslavia. Finally, during the severe economic crisis leading up to the 1990s wars, Kosovo&#8217;s income suffered the largest decline in all of Yugoslavia. In fact, the income drop in Kosovo was nearly double that of Macedonia, the second largest decline. As a result, at the dawn of the \u201990s, the per capita income in other republics was three to eight times higher than that of Kosovo, indicating pronounced degrees of between-country inequality.<\/span><\/p><p><b>First shock to the economy: the massive expulsion of workers\u00a0<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As we have seen, by the late 1980s, Kosovo was Yugoslavia\u2019s least developed and most vulnerable region. Soon after Milo\u0161evi\u0107 rose to power, in March 1989, Kosovo\u2019s autonomy under the 1974 constitution was revoked, paving the way for Serbia\u2019s annexation. By July 1990, the Serbian Assembly had established the legal framework to take over enterprises in Kosovo and expel Albanian workers, thus delivering a severe shock to Kosovo&#8217;s economy.<\/span><\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">12 public enterprises<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which constituted virtually all strategic national and regional public enterprises, were placed under Serbian control, and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">238 socially-owned enterprises were merged with counterparts in Serbia and Vojvodina<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Besides taking over enterprises, there were forms of looting the machinery and transferring equipment to factories in Serbia. By the end of 1990, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">146,025 out of 164,210 Albanian workers had been removed from their jobs<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. In other words, nearly nine out of 10 Albanian workers across civil administration, public services and various enterprises were abruptly dismissed by Milo\u0161evi\u0107&#8217;s regime.<\/span><\/p><p>Some of them did not only lose their job but also shelter, since they were evicted from the apartments granted to them by their workplace. This was particularly devastating, as housing in Yugoslavia was often tied to employment, with enterprises granting apartments to workers as part of their benefits. When jobs were lost, eviction from these employer-provided apartments followed, leaving many families in precarious situations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-008f955 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"008f955\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e144fac\" data-id=\"e144fac\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-22991f8 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"22991f8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1abc23b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1abc23b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kosovo's assets began to be sold off rapidly, a process often described as \"shock therapy,\" but the socio-political marginalization of Kosovo Albanians made it nearly impossible for them to buy apartments or other state-owned properties. \n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f4a64b9 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"f4a64b9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6498488 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"6498488\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3e13c9b\" data-id=\"3e13c9b\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a23a2e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2a23a2e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">The economic crisis of the 1980s demanded significant structural reforms, largely influenced by international institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF). As in other socialist countries, these laws aimed to transition the economy from a socialist model to a market-oriented system, introducing privatization as a cornerstone of the reforms. Privatization began in earnest in 1989 under the &#8220;Markovi\u0107 laws,&#8221; named after Ante Markovi\u0107, Yugoslavia\u2019s then-prime minister.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, the revocation of Kosovo\u2019s autonomy in 1989 meant that Kosovar Albanians were excluded from participating in these reforms. As Kosovo came under Serbia\u2019s grip, the process of privatization in the region was marked by significant discrimination. Kosovo&#8217;s assets were sold off rapidly, a process often described as &#8220;shock therapy,&#8221; but the socio-political marginalization of Kosovo Albanians made it nearly impossible for them to buy apartments or other state-owned properties.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The massive dismissal of workers affected all trades: healthcare, education, manufacturing, media and so on. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/kosovo-a-short-history_202104\/mode\/2up\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Doctors and healthcare workers were removed from hospitals, approximately 6,000 teachers were fired for protesting and the rest for refusing to follow the Serbian-imposed curriculum<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Trep\u00e7a miners were among the first to resist Milo\u0161evi\u0107&#8217;s actions, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">and journalists at the Rilindja, the Albanian-language daily newspaper, who covered these strikes, were swiftly dismissed<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Soon after, Serbian authorities seized control of Radio Television of Prishtina, expelling most of its Albanian staff. Starting in the 1991-92 academic year, Albanian students and faculty were barred from the University of Prishtina&#8217;s premises.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Alongside political repression enforced through police and military force, the expulsion of nearly 90% of Albanians from their jobs marked the first economic shock of the 1990s in Kosovo. This mass dismissal created a massive wave of unemployment, thrusting tens of thousands into poverty and economic uncertainty.<\/span><\/p><p><b>Double sanctions, hyperinflation and growing poverty<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">As discontent grew in the Yugoslav republics, the dissolution of Yugoslavia by the late 1980s was all but inevitable. The wars that followed in the 1990s led to U.N. sanctions on Serbia, which also impacted Kosovo. Albanians in Kosovo thus faced a double layer of sanctions: those from Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s regime and the international sanctions imposed on Serbia.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Meanwhile, the self-managed Yugoslav economy had been in crisis since the early 1980s, with hyperinflation becoming a significant consequence. The outbreak of wars in Croatia (1991) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992) compounded the situation, causing output to plummet and hyperinflation to return with a vengeance in 1992. In an attempt to combat the spiraling economy, Milo\u0161evi\u0107\u2019s regime resorted to printing money, which only worsened inflation.<\/span><\/p><p>The magnitude of the<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jcec.1999.1577\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a0severity of the hyperinflation in the early \u201890s<\/a>\u00a0is vividly described in this passage:<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-9f348c8 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"9f348c8\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-26b0354\" data-id=\"26b0354\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ca4b18e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ca4b18e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">The Yugoslav hyperinflation of 1992-1994 was historically unique and significant due to its extreme peak and duration. At its peak, in January 1994, the monthly inflation rate reached 313 million percent, thus becoming the second highest recorded rate of inflation after the Hungarian hyperinflation of 1945-1946. In addition, the Yugoslav hyperinflation lasted 24 months so that, after the Russian hyperinflation in the 1920s which lasted 26 months (Cagan, 1956), it is the second longest ever recorded. During these 24 months, between February 1992 and January 1994, the price level rose by a factor of 3.6 x 10<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">22<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">, which is second only to the most severe Hungarian hyperinflation (3.8 x 10<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">27<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">), but well ahead any other: 10<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">11<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\"> in China after World War II, 10<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">10<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\"> in Germany in the 1920s, etc. (Cagan, 1987).<\/span><\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-c3e02be elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"c3e02be\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2005266\" data-id=\"2005266\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fed22c3 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"fed22c3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Another significant economic blow during this period was the confiscation of personal savings. In 1990, the main bank in Kosovo, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bank Kos, was deactivated, resulting in the seizure of approximately $98 million in foreign currency deposits from 66,000 individuals<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. This substantial sum <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">was effectively taken over by Jugobanka in Belgrade<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, stripping many Kosovars of their hard-earned savings.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-ccf2c01 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"ccf2c01\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-48e391e\" data-id=\"48e391e\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a2ce024 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"a2ce024\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a539909 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a539909\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">A common saying that we hear to this day when reuniting after a long time, \u201cKe hup si Faksi!\u201d \u2014 \u201cYou\u2019ve disappeared like Faks!\u201d \u2014 refers to a laundry detergent that became notoriously scarce due to sanctions.\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7aa704f elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"7aa704f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-58bf6c2 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"58bf6c2\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-96a5d57\" data-id=\"96a5d57\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b5a436f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b5a436f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">For many, these savings represented not just a financial safety net but also a crucial resource for navigating the economic hardships of the time. The loss of these funds compounded the already dire situation faced by Kosovo Albanians, who had been expelled from their jobs and evicted from their homes, leaving them without employment, shelter or financial stability. This deliberate act of economic disenfranchisement further marginalized the Albanian population, deepening its poverty and heightening the challenges of survival under the Serbian regime\u2019s oppressive policies.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Combined with political oppression, mass job loss, runaway inflation and the impact of sanctions \u2014 which created severe shortages of essential goods \u2014 these conditions plunged Kosovo into deep economic destitution. For example, a common saying that we hear to this day <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">when reuniting after a long time, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cKe hup si Faksi!\u201d<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> \u2014 \u201cYou\u2019ve disappeared like Faks!\u201d \u2014 refers to a laundry detergent that became notoriously scarce due to sanctions.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Poverty soared as increasing numbers of families fell below subsistence levels. The Mother Teresa charity, one of the first humanitarian organizations established to alleviate poverty and socio-economic hardships in the early 1990s, noting an average family size estimate of 6.5 people, reported that the number of families receiving basic food assistance rose by over 32% in just a couple of years \u2014 <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from 43,320 in 1992 to 57,353 by 1994<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This escalation meant that the number of individuals living in extreme hardship grew from roughly 282,000 in 1992 to 373,000 in 1994.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">By 1994, this crisis had left one in five Albanians in Kosovo reliant on humanitarian aid. Additionally, the vast majority remained without social insurance, effectively excluding them from access to state-provided healthcare services. This deprivation compounded the struggle of hundreds of thousands of families, highlighting the dire socio-economic impact of the era.<\/span><\/p><p><b>The rise of new institutions and the birth of capitalist entrepreneurship<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The expulsion of Albanians from Yugoslav institutions and the sweeping political shifts in Europe following the fall of the Berlin Wall and socialism\u2019s collapse throughout the Soviet Bloc opened a pathway to political pluralism in Kosovo. In response to the imposed apartheid by Serbia&#8217;s regime, on July 2, 1990, the Kosovo Assembly declared a new constitution for Kosovo, in an attempt to resist the apartheid that was being installed. Despite Serbian authorities deeming the Assembly illegal, it succeeded in forming a shadow government that operated in exile, led by the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) under Ibrahim Rugova, who became Kosovo&#8217;s president in 1992.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-47b2a63 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"47b2a63\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-7c3b7e5\" data-id=\"7c3b7e5\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-44e7211 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"44e7211\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f60fdb9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f60fdb9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">The entrepreneurial spirit became a defining feature of the period, demonstrating the resilience and adaptability of the community amid adversity.\n<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9597844 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"9597844\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6b8d8c8\" data-id=\"6b8d8c8\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b0b33b3 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b0b33b3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The LDK government in exile initiated the 3% Fund, which called on Albanians, particularly those working abroad, to contribute 3% or more of their salaries. This fund primarily financed <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kosovo\u2019s parallel institutions, supporting education, healthcare and basic provisions for the poorest in the community. Although it had limited policymaking power, the fund represented efforts to mobilize resources for Kosovo&#8217;s Albanian population under extreme conditions.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">While the parallel system is praised for sustaining essential services, notably education and healthcare, it lacked the economic policies needed to tackle the escalating issues of unemployment and poverty after the mass expulsion of Albanian workers in Kosovo.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8b3219d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8b3219d\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-8244a82\" data-id=\"8244a82\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-60c7aed elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"60c7aed\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One initiative that aimed to tackle such issues was the establishment of the Union of Independent Trade Unions of Kosovo (UITUK) in 1990. Acting as an umbrella organization, UITUK coordinated trade unions and organized protests to resist Serbia\u2019s oppressive &#8220;emergency measures,&#8221; which included the revocation of autonomy, mass dismissals of Albanian workers, suppression of political and civil rights, takeover of key economic resources, increased police and military presence and cultural and educational restrictions targeting Albanian identity. <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Yet this union was not able to secure economic sustenance for the expelled workers, many of whom were young; <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/43292099\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">in 1991, approximately 58% of Kosovo&#8217;s population was under 25<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Thus, Kosovo Albanians faced two main paths: emigration or entrepreneurship.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">With limited options, many Kosovo Albanians sought work abroad, particularly in Western Europe, while others embraced entrepreneurship, creating small businesses or engaging in informal trade in local markets. This entrepreneurial spirit became a defining feature of the period, demonstrating the resilience and adaptability of the community amid adversity.<\/span><\/p><p><em>Entrepreneurship predominantly revolved around small family-owned businesses, including trading firms, travel agencies, restaurants and some small-scale manufacturing. These ventures, driven primarily by survival rather than profit, underscored a resourcefulness born out of necessity during one of Kosovo\u2019s most challenging times.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\">These events are vividly described in the following passage<\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-476dc4f elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"476dc4f\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-110d684\" data-id=\"110d684\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0fec62b elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0fec62b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><em><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">Immediately several hundred cabs, vans, lorries and minibuses were registered and took over the city and intercity lines (twice as many began operating without registration). A similar process occurred with thousands of mini-markets and supporting merchandise networks, where the supply of goods was completely privatised. Tourist agencies mushroomed because a family could support itself solely from the tickethandling fees. Coffee bars, restaurants and other enterprises were also quickly established. Many civil servants discovered latent talents for business, and did not regret losing jobs that brought them $100 a month when they found themselves able to earn three times more and make considerable profits.<\/span><\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-98f2ba7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"98f2ba7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-b753d05\" data-id=\"b753d05\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d928d9e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d928d9e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">In addition to dealing with a host of issues imposed by the Serbian authorities \u2014<\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\"> unlawful raids, interrogations and confiscations <\/span><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">\u2014 the economic environment for newly formed Albanian businesses was highly unfavorable. Several structural challenges contributed to this bleak outlook.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">First, there were virtually no public institutions available to support these businesses. Financing was equally challenging, as banks were fully controlled by the Serbian regime, restricting access to credit. Second, Albanians faced substantial barriers to privatizing assets from socially-owned enterprises, limiting their ability to establish or expand businesses. As in other cases of post-socialist crises, though, in ex-Yugoslav republics too, such a process was accompanied by many opportunities for corruption and asset stripping, as politically connected individuals or firms took advantage of the privatization process, often acquiring valuable assets at below-market prices and further entrenching economic inequalities. Third, unemployment and hyperinflation had severely depressed demand, creating further obstacles for businesses to thrive.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hyperinflation<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> also led to a sharp depreciation of the dinar, Yugoslavia\u2019s official currency, making it unreliable for savings or transactions. The formal economy, weighed down by state-controlled prices and restrictive regulations, struggled to adapt to the devaluation, with centralized bureaucracy exacerbating inefficiencies. Many businesses, unable to secure resources or produce goods affordably, increasingly turned to informal channels. As a result, the gray and black markets flourished, shifting economic activity away from the formal sector.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-174fa7a elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"174fa7a\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-555ab48\" data-id=\"555ab48\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0730bc8 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"0730bc8\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1287908 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"1287908\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Kosovo Albanians were particularly impacted by the dinar's devaluation, leading them to shift transactions to more stable currencies, primarily the Deutsche Mark.<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-618c5ee elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"618c5ee\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-72f25a1 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"72f25a1\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-9f95880\" data-id=\"9f95880\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c6f1ca5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c6f1ca5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">Illicit activities, although present earlier, intensified throughout the 1990s as hyperinflation, wars and sanctions fueled Serbia&#8217;s black-market economy. The Serb criminal networks dominated trade in smuggled goods and currency exchange, with gang leaders and football hooligans controlling black-market imports and currency conversions. Kosovo Albanians were particularly impacted by the dinar&#8217;s devaluation, leading them to shift transactions to more stable currencies, primarily the Deutsche Mark. This opened up a new entrepreneurial path: operating as street dealers on black currency markets.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Despite these hardships, Albanian-owned firms increased markedly. Between 1987 and 1995, the number of small Albanian-owned firms grew by over 969% \u2014 <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">from 1,733 to 18,534.<\/span> <span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">However, only about a third were fully operational, <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">employing roughly 20,000 workers<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These businesses, often limited to small ventures like pizzerias, petrol stations and minimarkets, primarily relied on family labor, providing minimal outside employment. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/43292099\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 1997, about 65% of the working-age population was <\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201ceconomically inactive \u2014 or \u2018unemployed,\u2019 as put by local experts.\u201d<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The absence of national economic policy manifested in various ways. Information asymmetries were particularly stark, as Kosovo lacked institutions that could effectively coordinate resource distribution. For instance, <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kosovo was able to produce 75% of the wheat it required, but due to disorganized distribution, it had to import over half of its wheat from Serbia, costing 60 million Deutsche Marks<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. While it produced more milk than it consumed, almost a third of the milk consumed was imported, as <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.de\/books\/about\/Civil_Resistance_in_Kosovo.html?id=OTW9XKUmrxsC&amp;redir_esc=y\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">22 Kosovo dairies were absorbed by a dairy headquartered in Belgrade<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1d6fb44 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"1d6fb44\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-dc21085\" data-id=\"dc21085\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1179c1a elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"1179c1a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-43bcc51 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"43bcc51\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">In Kosovo\u2019s case, however, the lack of viable alternatives and the severe limitations imposed by the regime led to an economy of necessity rather than a purposeful boycott.<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d85a5b1 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"d85a5b1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-a8f5e58\" data-id=\"a8f5e58\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7d923d9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"7d923d9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">While parallel institutions succeeded in resisting the regime\u2019s oppressive measures, Kosovo\u2019s economy largely adhered to a <\/span><i style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">laissez-faire<\/i><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\"> model \u2014 one of survival rather than self-determination. This survival-driven approach contrasts with economic strategies historically pursued by other colonized populations striving to resist their colonizers&#8217; control.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In numerous cases, economic resistance has played a pivotal role in the struggles of oppressed groups to counter colonial and systemic exploitation. For example, during the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), enslaved Africans dismantled the French colonial plantation economy by destroying sugar plantations, the backbone of colonial wealth and adopting subsistence farming systems. This economic disruption contributed to Haiti becoming the first independent Black republic and the first modern nation to abolish slavery.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-235972c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"235972c\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-8de89d1\" data-id=\"8de89d1\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0897e14 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0897e14\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"letter-spacing: -0.1px;\">In India, the Swadeshi Movement in the early 20th century responded to British economic dominance and the partition of Bengal by promoting the boycott of British goods, especially textiles and revitalizing local industries like khadi production, undermining British economic interests and strengthening Indian nationalism. Later, Mahatma Gandhi led the Salt March in 1930, a powerful act of economic defiance against British-imposed salt taxes. By marching to the sea and producing salt, Gandhi and his followers challenged colonial monopolies, inspiring mass participation in acts of resistance and galvanizing the independence movement.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Similarly, during apartheid in South Africa (1948-1990s), Black South Africans <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.csmonitor.com\/1985\/1217\/ocot.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">resisted economic exclusion and political oppression through campaigns boycotting white-owned businesses<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, the creation of cooperatives and <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aamarchives.org\/campaigns\/boycott.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">collaboration with international allies who imposed sanctions and boycotts on apartheid-linked businesses. <\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This combined internal and external pressure significantly weakened the apartheid regime, contributing to its eventual dismantling. Together, these cases highlight the profound impact of economic resistance in challenging systemic exploitation and fostering liberation movements.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Kosovo\u2019s case, however, the lack of viable alternatives and the severe limitations imposed by the regime led to an economy of necessity rather than a purposeful boycott, focusing on immediate survival rather than targeted resistance against the oppressor\u2019s economic systems.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-5e4926d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"5e4926d\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-99d1c85\" data-id=\"99d1c85\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9d58fcb elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"9d58fcb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>Ties that bind<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The resilience of Kosovo\u2019s population during the 1990s, despite the oppressive circumstances, was largely sustained by the solidarity within Albanian families and communities. With nearly 90% of Albanians purged from their jobs, survival was made possible by generous support from family members both within Kosovo and abroad. This solidarity was not just a social phenomenon; it was also deeply financial, with the diaspora playing a crucial role.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Yugoslav regime had long encouraged Kosovo Albanians to emigrate, and during the early \u201890s, the number of Kosovar Albanians leaving the region surged as the situation worsened. Massive waves were especially in the early \u201890s as the situation was rapidly declining. About <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/betweenserbalban00vick\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">100,000 Albanians ignored the call to join the Yugoslav Army<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, so many of them had to flee the country, mostly to Western Europe.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-14c5d22\" data-id=\"14c5d22\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e9ce92c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e9ce92c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">KS migration<\/h2>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-25bcf32 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"25bcf32\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t<p class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Between 1992 and 1993, the number of immigrants from Kosovo in Western European countries grew by almost 70% \u2014 from 217,000 in 1992 to 368,000 in 1993. Also, by 1993, about 25,000 had settled in Albania.<\/p>\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-33fd563 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"33fd563\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0ab3925\" data-id=\"0ab3925\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-156db65 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"156db65\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Although they had left Kosovo, their connection to home remained strong, and they contributed significantly through remittances that supported their families back home. These remittances helped to sustain families, fund institutions through the 3% Fund, and even finance the war effort through emergency funds such as <\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Vendlindja Th\u00ebrret \u2014 Homeland Calls \u2014<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> founded as early as 1993.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From an economic point of view, quantifying their help is interesting. While exact data on remittances is lacking, we can estimate their impact on Kosovo\u2019s economy by looking at the difference between GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and GNI (Gross National Income).<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><br \/><\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The following visuals explain this in further detail.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-ec3fe4c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"ec3fe4c\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f22c10d\" data-id=\"f22c10d\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4b16c8a elementor-arrows-position-inside elementor-pagination-position-outside elementor-widget elementor-widget-image-carousel\" data-id=\"4b16c8a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;slides_to_show&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;autoplay&quot;:&quot;no&quot;,&quot;navigation&quot;:&quot;both&quot;,&quot;infinite&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;effect&quot;:&quot;slide&quot;,&quot;speed&quot;:500}\" data-widget_type=\"image-carousel.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel-wrapper swiper-container\" dir=\"ltr\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel swiper-wrapper\" aria-live=\"polite\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"1 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide1.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide1\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"2 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide2.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide2\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"3 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide3.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide3\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"4 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide4.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual2_slide4\" \/><\/figure><\/div>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-prev\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-left\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-next\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-right\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-pagination\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d9803e2 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d9803e2\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e4e3da8\" data-id=\"e4e3da8\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c370bff elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"c370bff\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From 1990 to 1999, Kosovo had a larger gap between GNI and GDP than any former Yugoslav republic. Recognizing the two caveats \u2014 first, that these are not direct measures of remittances, and second, that we are using rough estimates of GDP and GNI from the U.N. \u2014 our estimates should be interpreted more for intuition rather than accuracy. Nevertheless, while we cannot claim with certainty the exact portion of the difference attributable to remittances, given the economic circumstances described earlier and anecdotal evidence from that time, these estimates strongly suggest that the Albanian diaspora played a major role in financing Kosovo\u2019s survival economy during its darkest hour.\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><b>Estimating Kosovo\u2019s economic losses<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The hardships of the \u201890s set Kosovo\u2019s economic progress back by decades, with the impact reverberating well beyond the turn of the century. Although liberation in June 1999 brought hope and new opportunities, Kosovo\u2019s economic losses during the \u201890s were unique, as they stemmed not only from the systemic challenges of transitioning from socialism to a market economy, but also from the oppressive apartheid policies imposed by Serbia, which crippled the economy and society.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To estimate the overall economic cost of this period, I estimate the output gap by constructing a counterfactual scenario where Kosovo\u2019s economy remained stagnant at its 1990 level. In other words, let us assume zero economic growth from 1990 onwards and then calculate the annual difference from the actual GDP. <\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-06d86f7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"06d86f7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-a66f8dc\" data-id=\"a66f8dc\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6876dd9 elementor-arrows-position-inside elementor-pagination-position-outside elementor-widget elementor-widget-image-carousel\" data-id=\"6876dd9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;slides_to_show&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;autoplay&quot;:&quot;no&quot;,&quot;navigation&quot;:&quot;both&quot;,&quot;infinite&quot;:&quot;yes&quot;,&quot;effect&quot;:&quot;slide&quot;,&quot;speed&quot;:500}\" data-widget_type=\"image-carousel.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel-wrapper swiper-container\" dir=\"ltr\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-image-carousel swiper-wrapper\" aria-live=\"polite\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"1 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual3_part1.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual3_part1\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"2 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual3_slide2.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual3_slide2\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"3 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual3_slide3.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual3_slide3\" \/><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"swiper-slide\" role=\"group\" aria-roledescription=\"slide\" aria-label=\"4 of 4\"><figure class=\"swiper-slide-inner\"><img class=\"swiper-slide-image\" src=\"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/k20_90seconomy_visual3_part2.png\" alt=\"k20_90seconomy_visual3_part2\" \/><\/figure><\/div>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-prev\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-left\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-swiper-button elementor-swiper-button-next\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"eicon-chevron-right\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"swiper-pagination\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-4b79dd3 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"4b79dd3\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e8873a4\" data-id=\"e8873a4\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3b3fc33 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"3b3fc33\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The political and economic hardships faced in Kosovo during the \u201890s are stories that deserve remembrance \u2014 not to fuel hate, nor to inspire vengeance, but as scars from a long struggle that ultimately led to the country\u2019s triumph. These memories are a testament to resilience and a reminder of the path toward freedom and independence \u2014 without which, no economic gain holds true value.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p><p><strong>Feature Image: Creative Commons.<\/strong><\/p><p>\u00a0<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/the-90s-in-pieces\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Return to Monograph.<\/i><\/a><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-8bf3de8 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"8bf3de8\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-background-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ec16cf0\" data-id=\"ec16cf0\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d1afd96 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d1afd96\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>Bibliography:<\/b><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Blaku, R. (1996). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Hintergrunde der Auswanderung von Albanern aus Kosova in die westeuropaischen Staaten: Moglichkeiten der Wiedereinbiirgerung in der Heimat.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Vienna.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Bolt, J., &amp; van Zanden, J. L. (2014). \u201cThe Maddison Project: collaborative research on historical national accounts.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Economic History Review, 67<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(3), 627-651.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Clark, H. (2000). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Civil Resistance in Kosovo.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> London: Pluto Press.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">H\u00e9thy, L. (2000). \u201cEmployment and workers&#8217; protection in Kosovo.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SEER: Journal for Labour and Social Affairs in Eastern Europe, 3<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(2), 9-24.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Malcolm, N. (1998). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Kosovo: A Short History.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> New York: New York University Press.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Petrovi\u0107, P., Bogeti\u0107, \u017d., &amp; Vujo\u0161evi\u0107, Z. (1999). \u201cThe Yugoslav Hyperinflation of 1992-1994: Causes, Dynamics, and Money Supply Process.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Journal of Comparative Economics, 27<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(2), 335-353.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Rocha, R. D. (1992). \u201cInflation and stabilization in Yugoslavia.\u201d <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Contemporary Economic Policy, 10<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">(4), 21-38.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">United Nations. (2024). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">National Accounts &#8211; Analysis of Main Aggregates (AMA)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. Retrieved from The National Accounts Section of the United Nations Statistics Division: https:\/\/unstats.un.org\/unsd\/snaama\/Index<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Vickers, M. (1998). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> New York: Columbia University Press.<\/span><\/p><p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Woodward, S. L. (1995). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War.<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution.<\/span><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-d04ad7f elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"d04ad7f\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-c22b3fc\" data-id=\"c22b3fc\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-182f6a1 elementor-widget-divider--view-line_icon elementor-view-default elementor-widget-divider--element-align-center elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"182f6a1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon elementor-divider__element\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" id=\"Layer_1\" x=\"0px\" y=\"0px\" viewBox=\"0 0 659 627\" style=\"enable-background:new 0 0 659 627;\" xml:space=\"preserve\"><style type=\"text\/css\">\t.st0{fill:#FDE801;}\t.st1{fill:#363635;}<\/style><g>\t<path class=\"st0\" 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elementor-element elementor-element-be7b99d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"be7b99d\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2be7c5b\" data-id=\"2be7c5b\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-aec6fa7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-global elementor-global-104647 elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"aec6fa7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong><em>D\u00ebshironi t\u00eb mb\u00ebshtetni gazetarin\u00eb ton\u00eb?<\/em><\/strong><\/p><p>N\u00eb Kosovo 2.0, p\u00ebrpiqemi t\u00eb jemi shtyll\u00eb e gazetaris\u00eb s\u00eb pavarur e me cil\u00ebsi t\u00eb lart\u00eb, n\u00eb nj\u00eb epok\u00eb ku \u00ebsht\u00eb gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb sfiduese t\u2019i mbash k\u00ebto standarde dhe ta ndjek\u00ebsh t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00ebn dhe llogaridh\u00ebnien pa u frik\u00ebsuar. P\u00ebr ta siguruar pavar\u00ebsin\u00eb ton\u00eb t\u00eb vazhdueshme, po prezantojm\u00eb HIVE, modelin ton\u00eb t\u00eb ri t\u00eb an\u00ebtar\u00ebsimit, i cili u ofron atyre q\u00eb e vler\u00ebsojn\u00eb gazetarin\u00eb ton\u00eb, mund\u00ebsin\u00eb t\u00eb kontribuojn\u00eb e b\u00ebhen pjes\u00eb e misionit ton\u00eb.<\/p><p><em>An\u00ebtar\u00ebsohuni n\u00eb \u201cHIVE\u201d ose konsideroni nj\u00eb donacion.&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0b49591\" data-id=\"0b49591\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-54c379e elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"54c379e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/complete-support\/?type=subscription&#038;package_id=basic&#038;duration=three-month\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Basic<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8b9ac7a elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"8b9ac7a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link 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class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">Premium<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0f87326 elementor-align-justify elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"0f87326\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/support-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">One time donation<\/span>\n\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>ENG SHQ B\/C\/S LONGFORM Kosovo in the \u201890s: an economy for the darkest hour Economic structures from decades past continue&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":547,"featured_media":114837,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"elementor_header_footer","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[972],"tags":[695],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/114815"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/547"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=114815"}],"version-history":[{"count":121,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/114815\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":116042,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/114815\/revisions\/116042"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/114837"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=114815"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=114815"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/archive.kosovotwopointzero.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=114815"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}